Project: PalMod2 - From the last interglacial to the anthropocene - modeling a complete glacial cycle.The PalMod project (https://www.palmod.de/) aims for a better understanding of how slow feedbacks in the Earth system operate.Using the new insights into Earth system dynamics, PalMod will also make projections of the futureclimate over the next few millennia. The project PalMod is in the second phase and funded by the German Federal Ministry of Education and Research as a Research for Sustainability Initiative.Summary: The transient simulation was performed with the Max Planck Institute for Meteorology Earth System Model version 1.2 in coarse resolution (MPI-ESM-CR) coupled to the ice-sheet model mPISM and the solid-earth model VILMA. MPI-ESM includes the spectral atmospheric model ECHAM6.3 at T31 horizontal resolution (approx. 3.75°) and 31 vertical levels, the land surface vegetation model JSBACH3.2, and the primitive equation ocean model MPIOM1.6 with a nominal resolution of 3°. Embedded into MPIOM1.6 is an Eulerian iceberg model (Erokhina and Mikolajewicz 2024). mPISM is based on PISM0.7.3. and was employed using a polar stereographic grid with a resolution of 10 km in the northern hemisphere and 15 km for Antarctica. VILMA was used in its 1D configuration and discretized on a Gaussian F128 grid with a nominal resolution of 0.7°. The applied setup was introduced in detail in Mikolajewicz et al. (2024).Following an asynchronous spin-up from 46 ka to 26ka during which MPI-ESM was run with an acceleration factor of 10, the model was integrated without acceleration from a glacial state at 26 ka to the year 1950 with prescribed atmospheric greenhouse gas concentrations (Köhler et al., 2017) and insolation (Berger & Loutre, 1991). This simulation used annualy varying volcanic forcing (Schindlbeck-Belo et al., 2024). Forcing fields between MPI-ESM, mPISM, and VILMA as well as changes in the topography, glacier mask, river pathways, ocean bathymetry, and land-sea mask were updated every 10 years. The experiment was performed as part of a model ensemble that contains simulations differing in terms of their tuning parameters, parameterizations, bug fixes and volcanic boundary forcing. These differences are described according to the CMIP6 nomenclature, where r denotes the realization, i the initialization method, p differences in the physics and f in the forcing. The ensemble is described in detail in Mikolajewicz et al. (2024). This particular simulation corresponds to the simulation D2.2 in Mikolajewicz et al. (2024).Note that the time runs with an offset of +25001 years, meaning that the year range 1-25000 of the data set equals the years 25000-1 BP (Before Present). All data are global datasets with the exception of output from the ice sheet model where regional northern hemispheric and southern hemispheric domains are used.

Project: PalMod2 - From the last interglacial to the anthropocene - modeling a complete glacial cycle.The PalMod project (https://www.palmod.de/) aims for a better understanding of how slow feedbacks in the Earth system operate.Using the new insights into Earth system dynamics, PalMod will also make projections of the futureclimate over the next few millennia. The project PalMod is in the second phase and funded by the German Federal Ministry of Education and Research as a Research for Sustainability Initiative.Summary: The transient simulation was performed with the Max Planck Institute for Meteorology Earth System Model version 1.2 in coarse resolution (MPI-ESM-CR) coupled to the ice-sheet model mPISM and the solid-earth model VILMA. MPI-ESM includes the spectral atmospheric model ECHAM6.3 at T31 horizontal resolution (approx. 3.75°) and 31 vertical levels, the land surface vegetation model JSBACH3.2, and the primitive equation ocean model MPIOM1.6 with a nominal resolution of 3°. Embedded into MPIOM1.6 is an Eulerian iceberg model (Erokhina and Mikolajewicz 2024). mPISM is based on PISM0.7.3. and was employed using a polar stereographic grid with a resolution of 10 km in the northern hemisphere and 15 km for Antarctica. VILMA was used in its 1D configuration and discretized on a Gaussian F128 grid with a nominal resolution of 0.7°. The applied setup was introduced in detail in Mikolajewicz et al. (2024).Following an asynchronous spin-up from 46 ka to 26ka during which MPI-ESM was run with an acceleration factor of 10, the model was integrated without acceleration from a glacial state at 26 ka to the year 1950 with prescribed atmospheric greenhouse gas concentrations (Köhler et al., 2017) and insolation (Berger & Loutre, 1991). This simulation used annualy varying volcanic forcing (Schindlbeck-Belo et al., 2024). Forcing fields between MPI-ESM, mPISM, and VILMA as well as changes in the topography, glacier mask, river pathways, ocean bathymetry, and land-sea mask were updated every 10 years. The experiment was performed as part of a model ensemble that contains simulations differing in terms of their tuning parameters, parameterizations, bug fixes and volcanic boundary forcing. These differences are described according to the CMIP6 nomenclature, where r denotes the realization, i the initialization method, p differences in the physics and f in the forcing. The ensemble is described in detail in Mikolajewicz et al. (2024). This particular simulation corresponds to the simulation D2.1 in Mikolajewicz et al. (2024).Note that the time runs with an offset of +25001 years, meaning that the year range 1-25000 of the data set equals the years 25000-1 BP (Before Present). All data are global datasets with the exception of output from the ice sheet model where regional northern hemispheric and southern hemispheric domains are used.

Project: PalMod2 - From the last interglacial to the anthropocene - modeling a complete glacial cycle.The PalMod project (https://www.palmod.de/) aims for a better understanding of how slow feedbacks in the Earth system operate.Using the new insights into Earth system dynamics, PalMod will also make projections of the futureclimate over the next few millennia. The project PalMod is in the second phase and funded by the German Federal Ministry of Education and Research as a Research for Sustainability Initiative.Summary: The transient simulation was performed with the Max Planck Institute for Meteorology Earth System Model version 1.2 in coarse resolution (MPI-ESM-CR) coupled to the ice-sheet model mPISM and the solid-earth model VILMA. MPI-ESM includes the spectral atmospheric model ECHAM6.3 at T31 horizontal resolution (approx. 3.75°) and 31 vertical levels, the land surface vegetation model JSBACH3.2, and the primitive equation ocean model MPIOM1.6 with a nominal resolution of 3°. Embedded into MPIOM1.6 is an Eulerian iceberg model (Erokhina and Mikolajewicz 2024). mPISM is based on PISM0.7.3. and was employed using a polar stereographic grid with a resolution of 10 km in the northern hemisphere and 15 km for Antarctica. VILMA was used in its 1D configuration and discretized on a Gaussian F128 grid with a nominal resolution of 0.7°. The applied setup was introduced in detail in Mikolajewicz et al. (2024).Following an asynchronous spin-up from 46 ka to 26ka during which MPI-ESM was run with an acceleration factor of 10, the model was integrated without acceleration from a glacial state at 26 ka to the year 1950 with prescribed atmospheric greenhouse gas concentrations (Köhler et al., 2017) and insolation (Berger & Loutre, 1991). This simulation used climatological volcanic forcing representing PI conditions. Forcing fields between MPI-ESM, mPISM, and VILMA as well as changes in the topography, glacier mask, river pathways, ocean bathymetry, and land-sea mask were updated every 10 years. The experiment was performed as part of a model ensemble that contains simulations differing in terms of their tuning parameters, parameterizations, bug fixes and volcanic boundary forcing. These differences are described according to the CMIP6 nomenclature, where r denotes the realization, i the initialization method, p differences in the physics and f in the forcing. The ensemble is described in detail in Mikolajewicz et al. (2024). This particular simulation corresponds to the simulation D1.2 in Mikolajewicz et al. (2024).Note that the time runs with an offset of +25001 years, meaning that the year range 1-25000 of the data set equals the years 25000-1 BP (Before Present). All data are global datasets with the exception of output from the ice sheet model where regional northern hemispheric and southern hemispheric domains are used.

Project: PalMod2 - From the last interglacial to the anthropocene - modeling a complete glacial cycle.The PalMod project (https://www.palmod.de/) aims for a better understanding of how slow feedbacks in the Earth system operate.Using the new insights into Earth system dynamics, PalMod will also make projections of the futureclimate over the next few millennia. The project PalMod is in the second phase and funded by the German Federal Ministry of Education and Research as a Research for Sustainability Initiative.Summary: The transient simulation was performed with the Max Planck Institute for Meteorology Earth System Model version 1.2 in coarse resolution (MPI-ESM-CR) coupled to the ice-sheet model mPISM and the solid-earth model VILMA. MPI-ESM includes the spectral atmospheric model ECHAM6.3 at T31 horizontal resolution (approx. 3.75°) and 31 vertical levels, the land surface vegetation model JSBACH3.2, and the primitive equation ocean model MPIOM1.6 with a nominal resolution of 3°. Embedded into MPIOM1.6 is an Eulerian iceberg model (Erokhina and Mikolajewicz 2024). mPISM is based on PISM0.7.3. and was employed using a polar stereographic grid with a resolution of 10 km in the northern hemisphere and 15 km for Antarctica. VILMA was used in its 1D configuration and discretized on a Gaussian F128 grid with a nominal resolution of 0.7°. The applied setup was introduced in detail in Mikolajewicz et al. (2024).Following an asynchronous spin-up from 46 ka to 26ka during which MPI-ESM was run with an acceleration factor of 10, the model was integrated without acceleration from a glacial state at 26 ka to the year 1950 with prescribed atmospheric greenhouse gas concentrations (Köhler et al., 2017) and insolation (Berger & Loutre, 1991). This simulation used annualy varying volcanic forcing (Schindlbeck-Belo et al., 2024). Forcing fields between MPI-ESM, mPISM, and VILMA as well as changes in the topography, glacier mask, river pathways, ocean bathymetry, and land-sea mask were updated every 10 years. The experiment was performed as part of a model ensemble that contains simulations differing in terms of their tuning parameters, parameterizations, bug fixes and volcanic boundary forcing. These differences are described according to the CMIP6 nomenclature, where r denotes the realization, i the initialization method, p differences in the physics and f in the forcing. The ensemble is described in detail in Mikolajewicz et al. (2024). This particular simulation corresponds to the simulation D1.4 in Mikolajewicz et al. (2024).Note that the time runs with an offset of +24051 years, meaning that the year range 50-25000 of the data set equals the years 25000-50 BP (Before Present). All data are global datasets with the exception of output from the ice sheet model where regional northern hemispheric and southern hemispheric domains are used.

Project: PalMod2 - From the last interglacial to the anthropocene - modeling a complete glacial cycle.The PalMod project (https://www.palmod.de/) aims for a better understanding of how slow feedbacks in the Earth system operate.Using the new insights into Earth system dynamics, PalMod will also make projections of the futureclimate over the next few millennia. The project PalMod is in the second phase and funded by the German Federal Ministry of Education and Research as a Research for Sustainability Initiative.Summary: The transient simulation was performed with the Max Planck Institute for Meteorology Earth System Model version 1.2 in coarse resolution (MPI-ESM-CR) coupled to the ice-sheet model mPISM and the solid-earth model VILMA. MPI-ESM includes the spectral atmospheric model ECHAM6.3 at T31 horizontal resolution (approx. 3.75°) and 31 vertical levels, the land surface vegetation model JSBACH3.2, and the primitive equation ocean model MPIOM1.6 with a nominal resolution of 3°. Embedded into MPIOM1.6 is an Eulerian iceberg model (Erokhina and Mikolajewicz 2024). mPISM is based on PISM0.7.3. and was employed using a polar stereographic grid with a resolution of 10 km in the northern hemisphere and 15 km for Antarctica. VILMA was used in its 1D configuration and discretized on a Gaussian F128 grid with a nominal resolution of 0.7°. The applied setup was introduced in detail in Mikolajewicz et al. (2024).Following an asynchronous spin-up from 46 ka to 26ka during which MPI-ESM was run with an acceleration factor of 10, the model was integrated without acceleration from a glacial state at 26 ka to the year 1950 with prescribed atmospheric greenhouse gas concentrations (Köhler et al., 2017) and insolation (Berger & Loutre, 1991). This simulation used climatological volcanic forcing representing PI conditions. Forcing fields between MPI-ESM, mPISM, and VILMA as well as changes in the topography, glacier mask, river pathways, ocean bathymetry, and land-sea mask were updated every 10 years. The experiment was performed as part of a model ensemble that contains simulations differing in terms of their tuning parameters, parameterizations, bug fixes and volcanic boundary forcing. These differences are described according to the CMIP6 nomenclature, where r denotes the realization, i the initialization method, p differences in the physics and f in the forcing. The ensemble is described in detail in Mikolajewicz et al. (2024). This particular simulation corresponds to the simulation D1.1 in Mikolajewicz et al. (2024).Note that the time runs with an offset of +25001 years, meaning that the year range 1-25000 of the data set equals the years 25000-1 BP (Before Present). All data are global datasets with the exception of output from the ice sheet model where regional northern hemispheric and southern hemispheric domains are used.

Project: PalMod2 - From the last interglacial to the anthropocene - modeling a complete glacial cycle.The PalMod project (https://www.palmod.de/) aims for a better understanding of how slow feedbacks in the Earth system operate.Using the new insights into Earth system dynamics, PalMod will also make projections of the futureclimate over the next few millennia. The project PalMod is in the second phase and funded by the German Federal Ministry of Education and Research as a Research for Sustainability Initiative.Summary: The transient simulation was performed with the Max Planck Institute for Meteorology Earth System Model version 1.2 in coarse resolution (MPI-ESM-CR) coupled to the ice-sheet model mPISM and the solid-earth model VILMA. MPI-ESM includes the spectral atmospheric model ECHAM6.3 at T31 horizontal resolution (approx. 3.75°) and 31 vertical levels, the land surface vegetation model JSBACH3.2, and the primitive equation ocean model MPIOM1.6 with a nominal resolution of 3°. Embedded into MPIOM1.6 is an Eulerian iceberg model (Erokhina and Mikolajewicz 2024). mPISM is based on PISM0.7.3. and was employed using a polar stereographic grid with a resolution of 10 km in the northern hemisphere and 15 km for Antarctica. VILMA was used in its 1D configuration and discretized on a Gaussian F128 grid with a nominal resolution of 0.7°. The applied setup was introduced in detail in Mikolajewicz et al. (2024).Following an asynchronous spin-up from 46 ka to 26ka during which MPI-ESM was run with an acceleration factor of 10, the model was integrated without acceleration from a glacial state at 26 ka to the year 1950 with prescribed atmospheric greenhouse gas concentrations (Köhler et al., 2017) and insolation (Berger & Loutre, 1991). This simulation used climatological volcanic forcing representing PI conditions. Forcing fields between MPI-ESM, mPISM, and VILMA as well as changes in the topography, glacier mask, river pathways, ocean bathymetry, and land-sea mask were updated every 10 years. The experiment was performed as part of a model ensemble that contains simulations differing in terms of their tuning parameters, parameterizations, bug fixes and volcanic boundary forcing. These differences are described according to the CMIP6 nomenclature, where r denotes the realization, i the initialization method, p differences in the physics and f in the forcing. The ensemble is described in detail in Mikolajewicz et al. (2024). This particular simulation corresponds to the simulation D1.3 in Mikolajewicz et al. (2024).Note that the time runs with an offset of +25001 years, meaning that the year range 1-25000 of the data set equals the years 25000-1 BP (Before Present). All data are global datasets with the exception of output from the ice sheet model where regional northern hemispheric and southern hemispheric domains are used. Please note that 10 years of model output from MPI-ESM, spanning the time from 381-370 BP are missing. The corresponding files only contain missing values.

Project: PalMod2 - From the last interglacial to the anthropocene - modeling a complete glacial cycle.The PalMod project (https://www.palmod.de/) aims for a better understanding of how slow feedbacks in the Earth system operate.Using the new insights into Earth system dynamics, PalMod will also make projections of the futureclimate over the next few millennia. The project PalMod is in the second phase and funded by the German Federal Ministry of Education and Research as a Research for Sustainability Initiative.Summary: The transient simulation was performed with the Max Planck Institute for Meteorology Earth System Model version 1.2 in coarse resolution (MPI-ESM-CR) coupled to the ice-sheet model mPISM and the solid-earth model VILMA. MPI-ESM includes the spectral atmospheric model ECHAM6.3 at T31 horizontal resolution (approx. 3.75°) and 31 vertical levels, the land surface vegetation model JSBACH3.2, and the primitive equation ocean model MPIOM1.6 with a nominal resolution of 3°. Embedded into MPIOM1.6 is an Eulerian iceberg model (Erokhina and Mikolajewicz 2024). mPISM is based on PISM0.7.3. and was employed using a polar stereographic grid with a resolution of 10 km in the northern hemisphere and 15 km for Antarctica. VILMA was used in its 1D configuration and discretized on a Gaussian F128 grid with a nominal resolution of 0.7°. The applied setup was introduced in detail in Mikolajewicz et al. (2024).Following an asynchronous spin-up from 46 ka to 26ka during which MPI-ESM was run with an acceleration factor of 10, the model was integrated without acceleration from a glacial state at 26 ka to the year 1950 with prescribed atmospheric greenhouse gas concentrations (Köhler et al., 2017) and insolation (Berger & Loutre, 1991). This simulation used annualy varying volcanic forcing (Schindlbeck-Belo et al., 2024). Forcing fields between MPI-ESM, mPISM, and VILMA as well as changes in the topography, glacier mask, river pathways, ocean bathymetry, and land-sea mask were updated every 10 years. The experiment was performed as part of a model ensemble that contains simulations differing in terms of their tuning parameters, parameterizations, bug fixes and volcanic boundary forcing. These differences are described according to the CMIP6 nomenclature, where r denotes the realization, i the initialization method, p differences in the physics and f in the forcing. The ensemble is described in detail in Mikolajewicz et al. (2024). This particular simulation corresponds to the simulation D2.4 in Mikolajewicz et al. (2024).Note that the time runs with an offset of +25001 years, meaning that the year range 1-25000 of the data set equals the years 25000-1 BP (Before Present). All data are global datasets with the exception of output from the ice sheet model where regional northern hemispheric and southern hemispheric domains are used.

Project: PalMod2 - From the last interglacial to the anthropocene - modeling a complete glacial cycle.The PalMod project (https://www.palmod.de/) aims for a better understanding of how slow feedbacks in the Earth system operate.Using the new insights into Earth system dynamics, PalMod will also make projections of the futureclimate over the next few millennia. The project PalMod is in the second phase and funded by the German Federal Ministry of Education and Research as a Research for Sustainability Initiative.Summary: The transient simulation was performed with the Max Planck Institute for Meteorology Earth System Model version 1.2 in coarse resolution (MPI-ESM-CR) coupled to the ice-sheet model mPISM and the solid-earth model VILMA. MPI-ESM includes the spectral atmospheric model ECHAM6.3 at T31 horizontal resolution (approx. 3.75°) and 31 vertical levels, the land surface vegetation model JSBACH3.2, and the primitive equation ocean model MPIOM1.6 with a nominal resolution of 3°. Embedded into MPIOM1.6 is an Eulerian iceberg model (Erokhina and Mikolajewicz 2024). mPISM is based on PISM0.7.3. and was employed using a polar stereographic grid with a resolution of 10 km in the northern hemisphere and 15 km for Antarctica. VILMA was used in its 1D configuration and discretized on a Gaussian F128 grid with a nominal resolution of 0.7°. The applied setup was introduced in detail in Mikolajewicz et al. (2024).Following an asynchronous spin-up from 46 ka to 26ka during which MPI-ESM was run with an acceleration factor of 10, the model was integrated without acceleration from a glacial state at 26 ka to the year 1950 with prescribed atmospheric greenhouse gas concentrations (Köhler et al., 2017) and insolation (Berger & Loutre, 1991). This simulation used annualy varying volcanic forcing (Schindlbeck-Belo et al., 2024). Forcing fields between MPI-ESM, mPISM, and VILMA as well as changes in the topography, glacier mask, river pathways, ocean bathymetry, and land-sea mask were updated every 10 years. The experiment was performed as part of a model ensemble that contains simulations differing in terms of their tuning parameters, parameterizations, bug fixes and volcanic boundary forcing. These differences are described according to the CMIP6 nomenclature, where r denotes the realization, i the initialization method, p differences in the physics and f in the forcing. The ensemble is described in detail in Mikolajewicz et al. (2024). This particular simulation corresponds to the simulation D2.3 in Mikolajewicz et al. (2024).Note that the time runs with an offset of +25001 years, meaning that the year range 1-25000 of the data set equals the years 25000-1 BP (Before Present). All data are global datasets with the exception of output from the ice sheet model where regional northern hemispheric and southern hemispheric domains are used.

Project: CMIP6 Supplemental Data - The project is aligned to the CMIP6 project. It includes datasets of variables, which result from CMIP6 MIPs, but are not part of the CMIP6 MIP tables (https://github.com/PCMDI/cmip6-cmor-tables/blob/main/Tables/CMIP6_CV.json).Summary: Ensemble of MPI-ESM1-2-LR (Mauritsen et al. 2019) supplemental DAMIP/LESFMIP data for CMIP6/CMIP6Plus (https://wcrp-cmip.org/cmip6plus/). The historical-like single-forcing simulations are produced similar to the single-forcing simulations for DAMIP (Gillett et al. 2016) that are published at the ESGF (https://www.wdc-climate.de/ui/cmip6?input=CMIP6.DAMIP.MPI-M.MPI-ESM1-2-LR). The Large Ensemble Single Forcing Model Intercomparison Project (LESFMIP; Smith et al. 2022) requests additional simulations for CMIP6Plus. The data are stored here in lack of space at the ESGF. The CMORization follows the DAMIP/CMIP6 standard in order to use the present scripts and quality checks.The historical-like single-forcing simulations are produced similar to the single-forcing simulations for DAMIP (Gillett et al. 2016) that are published at the ESGF (https://www.wdc-climate.de/ui/cmip6?input=CMIP6.DAMIP.MPI-M.MPI-ESM1-2-LR) - same version. In the single-forcing simulations each set of simulations is forced by only greenhouse-gases, total ozone, solar insolation, anthropogenic aerosols, and volcanic aerosols external forcing data. Here, the historical-like simulations are forced by only land-use data. Each set of simulations consists of 30 ensemble members.Gillett, N. P., Shiogama, H., Funke, B., Hegerl, G., Knutti, R., Matthes, K., Santer, B. D., Stone, D., and Tebaldi, C.: The Detection and Attribution Model Intercomparison Project (DAMIP v1.0) contribution to CMIP6, Geosci. Model Dev., 9, 3685–3697, https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-9-3685-2016, 2016.Smith DM, Gillett NP, Simpson IR, Athanasiadis PJ, Baehr J, Bethke I, Bilge TA, Bonnet R, Boucher O, Findell KL, Gastineau G, Gualdi S, Hermanson L, Leung LR, Mignot J, Müller WA, Osprey S, Otterå OH, Persad GG, Scaife AA, Schmidt GA, Shiogama H, Sutton RT, Swingedouw D, Yang S, Zhou T and Ziehn T (2022) Attribution of multi-annual to decadal changes in the climate system: The Large Ensemble Single Forcing Model Intercomparison Project (LESFMIP). Front. Clim. 4:955414. doi:10.3389/fclim.2022.955414

This dataset provides climatological aggregation of aerosol remote sensing data over 20 years (2000-2019) in Hamburg, Germany. Level 3 climatological datasets are obtained as aggregated products from the ACTRIS/EARLINET fully quality controlled (QC) aerosol optical products (i.e. Level 2 products). In particular, this release considers only data fully compliant to the QC procedure v3.0 [EARLINET Data Quality Check]. Three types of data are provided: profile values, integrated quantities, layer statistics. For each type of data, four different temporal aggregations are provided: seasonal, annual, normal seasonal, normal monthly.