Table 1 Radiocarbon dates for the Calderinha record, São Nicolau Island. Dates in bold are the ones used for the final age-depth model.Laboratory IDDepthMaterial datedAgeCalibrated ageSUERC-8700960 cmCharcoal & wood1609 ± 371594–1405 cal yr BPSUERC-8700870 cmBulk sediment2661 ± 352845–2744 cal yr BPSUERC-8700480 cmBulk sediment2999 ± 373336–3066 cal yr BPSUERC-87003105 cmBulk sediment2868 ± 373140–2872 cal yr BPSUERC-87002115 cmCharcoal501 ± 35624–500 cal yr BPSUERC-87001125 cmBulk sediment3161 ± 373456–3257 cal yr BPUBA-38690135 cmBulk sediment4517 ± 285303–5051 cal yr BPUBA-38473185 cmBulk sediment lipid extractions5120 ± 335934–5179 cal yr BP

Table 1 Radiocarbon dates for the Calderinha record, São Nicolau Island. Dates in bold are the ones used for the final age-depth model.Laboratory IDDepthMaterial datedAgeCalibrated ageSUERC-8700960 cmCharcoal & wood1609 ± 371594–1405 cal yr BPSUERC-8700870 cmBulk sediment2661 ± 352845–2744 cal yr BPSUERC-8700480 cmBulk sediment2999 ± 373336–3066 cal yr BPSUERC-87003105 cmBulk sediment2868 ± 373140–2872 cal yr BPSUERC-87002115 cmCharcoal501 ± 35624–500 cal yr BPSUERC-87001125 cmBulk sediment3161 ± 373456–3257 cal yr BPUBA-38690135 cmBulk sediment4517 ± 285303–5051 cal yr BPUBA-38473185 cmBulk sediment lipid extractions5120 ± 335934–5179 cal yr BP

Table 2 Summary of insights derived from palaeoecological data for conservation and livelihoods in Monte Gordo Natural Park, São Nicolau.Conservation challenge based on palaeoevidenceEvidenceConservation actionConsiderations regarding livelihoods and future researchDegradation of scrubland and loss of woody taxa since human settlementPollen and NPPsReforestation using native species reported in this study, associated with removal of identified invasive speciesA study to compare economic benefits provided by introduced taxa and native species is needed. The control of invasive species in areas of restored native vegetation could require prolonged labour (see Burney and Burney, 2016). Future studies might yield insights on past abundance of other important endemic species such as Sideroxylon marginatum.Potential establishment (100 years ago) of introduced taxa such as Asystasia and Opuntia (?)PollenMonitor the spread of these species and study their economic value for local inhabitants.These species are not (yet) considered invasive in Cabo Verde (MAA/DGA 2008). However, in the Canary Islands, Opuntia dillenii and O. maxima are considered invasive species.Ancient fire potentially related to scrubland encroachmentCharcoal particlesAvoiding fuel loading, especially added by spreading invasive speciesAccording to our fire data fire has been present at least for the last millennium in the National Park. Conservation action could focus on the recovery of recently burned land, as our data shows that introduced species spread in cleared areas.Current erosion levels are higher than Late-Holocene baseline levels and an increasing trendGSDUse of abandoned and degraded terrace structures for afforestation initiativesMonitor the response of vegetation and soils to extreme weather events to assess which taxa would offer better soil-protection. For instance, Hurricane Freddy (2015) severely affected slopes that held planted conifers and Eucalyptus. Reforestation with native species could offer more resilient plant cover on slopes vulnerable to strong winds and heavy rainfall.Grazing as a main driver of loss of vegetation cover and erosionNPPs, pollen, GSDRestrict and control grazing activity in areas of endemic and native vegetation, allocating special areas for this activityA study of local reliance on free-range grazing and of potential alternatives is needed to protect nursing areas for restored vegetation.

Table 2 Summary of insights derived from palaeoecological data for conservation and livelihoods in Monte Gordo Natural Park, São Nicolau.Conservation challenge based on palaeoevidenceEvidenceConservation actionConsiderations regarding livelihoods and future researchDegradation of scrubland and loss of woody taxa since human settlementPollen and NPPsReforestation using native species reported in this study, associated with removal of identified invasive speciesA study to compare economic benefits provided by introduced taxa and native species is needed. The control of invasive species in areas of restored native vegetation could require prolonged labour (see Burney and Burney, 2016). Future studies might yield insights on past abundance of other important endemic species such as Sideroxylon marginatum.Potential establishment (100 years ago) of introduced taxa such as Asystasia and Opuntia (?)PollenMonitor the spread of these species and study their economic value for local inhabitants.These species are not (yet) considered invasive in Cabo Verde (MAA/DGA 2008). However, in the Canary Islands, Opuntia dillenii and O. maxima are considered invasive species.Ancient fire potentially related to scrubland encroachmentCharcoal particlesAvoiding fuel loading, especially added by spreading invasive speciesAccording to our fire data fire has been present at least for the last millennium in the National Park. Conservation action could focus on the recovery of recently burned land, as our data shows that introduced species spread in cleared areas.Current erosion levels are higher than Late-Holocene baseline levels and an increasing trendGSDUse of abandoned and degraded terrace structures for afforestation initiativesMonitor the response of vegetation and soils to extreme weather events to assess which taxa would offer better soil-protection. For instance, Hurricane Freddy (2015) severely affected slopes that held planted conifers and Eucalyptus. Reforestation with native species could offer more resilient plant cover on slopes vulnerable to strong winds and heavy rainfall.Grazing as a main driver of loss of vegetation cover and erosionNPPs, pollen, GSDRestrict and control grazing activity in areas of endemic and native vegetation, allocating special areas for this activityA study of local reliance on free-range grazing and of potential alternatives is needed to protect nursing areas for restored vegetation.