The repository contains the data supporting the findings of the study: "Beetles, wind, and fire: effects of climate change and close-to-nature forestry on disturbance predisposition and ecosystem service trade-offs", which is related to the co-submitted methods article "Integrating fire predisposition assessment into decision support systems for mountain forest management"Abstract: Close-to-nature forestry (CNF) is considered an effective strategy to adapt mountain forests to climate change while sustaining ecosystem services and biodiversity (BES). However, for forest management it remains unclear whether current CNF strategies sufficiently reduce forests’ predisposition to climate-change-induced shifts in disturbance regimes. To address this increasing complexity, we introduce the integration of the forest gap model ForClim with assessments of predisposition to fire, bark beetle, and windthrow disturbances, as well as BES provision. We conducted simulations for a forest enterprise in the Central Swiss Alps, covering a large elevation gradient, under three climate scenarios (historical, SSP2-4.5, and SSP5-8.5) and six management strategies, including CNF variants with different management intensities and climate-adapted approaches. Our results indicate that climate change will dynamically alter disturbance predisposition across elevation gradients. Site-related predisposition to fire and bark beetle infestation generally increased under climate change, while stand-related predisposition varied with climate scenario and elevation. Under moderate warming (SSP2-4.5), stand-related predisposition to fire and windthrow increased across all elevations. In contrast, under severe warming (SSP5-8.5), long-term reductions in stand-related predisposition to fire, bark beetle infestation, and windthrow occurred at lower elevations due to declining forest productivity, while predisposition increased at higher elevations with improved growing conditions. CNF emerged as a balanced approach for reducing predisposition to bark beetle infestation and windthrow while maintaining BES. However, CNF promoted stand characteristics that increase stand-related predisposition to forest fires. Our results further show that increasing management intensity generally reduces stand-related disturbance predisposition but can also lead to trade-offs, such as reduced BES provision. We conclude that climate-adapted forest management must account for both stand-related and site-related predisposition to prioritize disturbance-prone ‘hotspots’, especially in areas of high BES value. Proactively reducing disturbance predisposition may involve short-term trade-offs regarding BES provision but may be crucial to avoid larger, long-term BES losses from severe disturbances. Our study underscores the need for decision support systems to support informed decision-making in mountain forest management.Data: A comprehensive overview of the data provided is documented in the PDF "00_README_data_description.pdf".This study was conducted as part of the ONEforest project, which received funding from the European Union's Horizon 2020 research and innovation programme under the grant agreement Nº 101000406.

The repository contains the data supporting the findings of the study: "Beetles, wind, and fire: effects of climate change and close-to-nature forestry on disturbance predisposition and ecosystem service trade-offs", which is related to the co-submitted methods article "Integrating fire predisposition assessment into decision support systems for mountain forest management"Abstract: Close-to-nature forestry (CNF) is considered an effective strategy to adapt mountain forests to climate change while sustaining ecosystem services and biodiversity (BES). However, for forest management it remains unclear whether current CNF strategies sufficiently reduce forests’ predisposition to climate-change-induced shifts in disturbance regimes. To address this increasing complexity, we introduce the integration of the forest gap model ForClim with assessments of predisposition to fire, bark beetle, and windthrow disturbances, as well as BES provision. We conducted simulations for a forest enterprise in the Central Swiss Alps, covering a large elevation gradient, under three climate scenarios (historical, SSP2-4.5, and SSP5-8.5) and six management strategies, including CNF variants with different management intensities and climate-adapted approaches. Our results indicate that climate change will dynamically alter disturbance predisposition across elevation gradients. Site-related predisposition to fire and bark beetle infestation generally increased under climate change, while stand-related predisposition varied with climate scenario and elevation. Under moderate warming (SSP2-4.5), stand-related predisposition to fire and windthrow increased across all elevations. In contrast, under severe warming (SSP5-8.5), long-term reductions in stand-related predisposition to fire, bark beetle infestation, and windthrow occurred at lower elevations due to declining forest productivity, while predisposition increased at higher elevations with improved growing conditions. CNF emerged as a balanced approach for reducing predisposition to bark beetle infestation and windthrow while maintaining BES. However, CNF promoted stand characteristics that increase stand-related predisposition to forest fires. Our results further show that increasing management intensity generally reduces stand-related disturbance predisposition but can also lead to trade-offs, such as reduced BES provision. We conclude that climate-adapted forest management must account for both stand-related and site-related predisposition to prioritize disturbance-prone ‘hotspots’, especially in areas of high BES value. Proactively reducing disturbance predisposition may involve short-term trade-offs regarding BES provision but may be crucial to avoid larger, long-term BES losses from severe disturbances. Our study underscores the need for decision support systems to support informed decision-making in mountain forest management.Data: A comprehensive overview of the data provided is documented in the PDF "00_README_data_description.pdf".This study was conducted as part of the ONEforest project, which received funding from the European Union's Horizon 2020 research and innovation programme under the grant agreement Nº 101000406.

The repository contains the data supporting the findings of the study: "Beetles, wind, and fire: effects of climate change and close-to-nature forestry on disturbance predisposition and ecosystem service trade-offs", which is related to the co-submitted methods article "Integrating fire predisposition assessment into decision support systems for mountain forest management"Abstract: Close-to-nature forestry (CNF) is considered an effective strategy to adapt mountain forests to climate change while sustaining ecosystem services and biodiversity (BES). However, for forest management it remains unclear whether current CNF strategies sufficiently reduce forests’ predisposition to climate-change-induced shifts in disturbance regimes. To address this increasing complexity, we introduce the integration of the forest gap model ForClim with assessments of predisposition to fire, bark beetle, and windthrow disturbances, as well as BES provision. We conducted simulations for a forest enterprise in the Central Swiss Alps, covering a large elevation gradient, under three climate scenarios (historical, SSP2-4.5, and SSP5-8.5) and six management strategies, including CNF variants with different management intensities and climate-adapted approaches. Our results indicate that climate change will dynamically alter disturbance predisposition across elevation gradients. Site-related predisposition to fire and bark beetle infestation generally increased under climate change, while stand-related predisposition varied with climate scenario and elevation. Under moderate warming (SSP2-4.5), stand-related predisposition to fire and windthrow increased across all elevations. In contrast, under severe warming (SSP5-8.5), long-term reductions in stand-related predisposition to fire, bark beetle infestation, and windthrow occurred at lower elevations due to declining forest productivity, while predisposition increased at higher elevations with improved growing conditions. CNF emerged as a balanced approach for reducing predisposition to bark beetle infestation and windthrow while maintaining BES. However, CNF promoted stand characteristics that increase stand-related predisposition to forest fires. Our results further show that increasing management intensity generally reduces stand-related disturbance predisposition but can also lead to trade-offs, such as reduced BES provision. We conclude that climate-adapted forest management must account for both stand-related and site-related predisposition to prioritize disturbance-prone ‘hotspots’, especially in areas of high BES value. Proactively reducing disturbance predisposition may involve short-term trade-offs regarding BES provision but may be crucial to avoid larger, long-term BES losses from severe disturbances. Our study underscores the need for decision support systems to support informed decision-making in mountain forest management.Data: A comprehensive overview of the data provided is documented in the PDF "00_README_data_description.pdf".This study was conducted as part of the ONEforest project, which received funding from the European Union's Horizon 2020 research and innovation programme under the grant agreement Nº 101000406.

The repository contains the data supporting the findings of the study: Optimizing sustainable and multifunctional management of Alpine Forests under climate changeAbstract: Climate change challenges the sustainable provision of biodiversity and ecosystem services in Alpine forests, including the important protection service against gravitational hazards. Forest planners are faced with the question how to adapt and manage best their forests to guarantee future forest multifunctionality. Usually, planners have alternative close-to-nature management approaches at hand, but individual management objectives and forest resilience affects the optimal management portfolio. We used the climate sensitive forest growth model ForClim and multi-objective optimization to address this planning task using an Alpine forest enterprise in Switzerland as case study site. We present an optimization framework tailored for the important protective service of mountain forests, allowing for the integration of flexible and multiple management objectives. Our results showed that an optimized management can safeguard and improve provision of multiple benefits at the same time with the optimal management portfolio depending on the targeted objectives. Impacts of climate change require however increasing shares of climate adapted close-to-nature management strategy reaching 78% in forests without protection service and 68% in forests with protection service, while the latter were more sensitive to climate change impacts. Climate adapted close-to-nature management strategy in combination with less intensive strategies and reserve areas provided the highest multifunctionality under the most intense climate change scenario. Adaptation also allowed for further improvement of biodiversity and ecosystem service provision, particularly for carbon sequestration. In conclusion, forest planning should rely and make use of climate sensitive modelling and optimization frameworks to adapt forests against uncertainties of climate change and for future sustainability and multifunctionality.Data:There is one folder containing the input data for the multi-objective optimization and one folder containing the optimization output. The input represents the periodically (10 years time steps) simulated biodiversity and ecosystem service indicators for each forest stand in the case study area under alternative management and climate change scenarios. The optimization output includes 18 iterations for three climate scenarios (Hist, SSP2-4.5, SSP5-8.5), three optimization scenarios (Timber, Multifunctionality, Enterprise) and for forests with and without protective service.This study was conducted as part of the ONEforest project, which received funding from the European Union's Horizon 2020 research and innovation programme under the grant agreement Nº 101000406.

The repository contains the data supporting the findings of the study: Optimizing sustainable and multifunctional management of Alpine Forests under climate changeAbstract: Climate change challenges the sustainable provision of biodiversity and ecosystem services in Alpine forests, including the important protection service against gravitational hazards. Forest planners are faced with the question how to adapt and manage best their forests to guarantee future forest multifunctionality. Usually, planners have alternative close-to-nature management approaches at hand, but individual management objectives and forest resilience affects the optimal management portfolio. We used the climate sensitive forest growth model ForClim and multi-objective optimization to address this planning task using an Alpine forest enterprise in Switzerland as case study site. We present an optimization framework tailored for the important protective service of mountain forests, allowing for the integration of flexible and multiple management objectives. Our results showed that an optimized management can safeguard and improve provision of multiple benefits at the same time with the optimal management portfolio depending on the targeted objectives. Impacts of climate change require however increasing shares of climate adapted close-to-nature management strategy reaching 78% in forests without protection service and 68% in forests with protection service, while the latter were more sensitive to climate change impacts. Climate adapted close-to-nature management strategy in combination with less intensive strategies and reserve areas provided the highest multifunctionality under the most intense climate change scenario. Adaptation also allowed for further improvement of biodiversity and ecosystem service provision, particularly for carbon sequestration. In conclusion, forest planning should rely and make use of climate sensitive modelling and optimization frameworks to adapt forests against uncertainties of climate change and for future sustainability and multifunctionality.Data:There is one folder containing the input data for the multi-objective optimization and one folder containing the optimization output. The input represents the periodically (10 years time steps) simulated biodiversity and ecosystem service indicators for each forest stand in the case study area under alternative management and climate change scenarios. The optimization output includes 18 iterations for three climate scenarios (Hist, SSP2-4.5, SSP5-8.5), three optimization scenarios (Timber, Multifunctionality, Enterprise) and for forests with and without protective service.This study was conducted as part of the ONEforest project, which received funding from the European Union's Horizon 2020 research and innovation programme under the grant agreement Nº 101000406.

The repository contains the data supporting the findings of the study: Optimizing sustainable and multifunctional management of Alpine Forests under climate changeAbstract: Climate change challenges the sustainable provision of biodiversity and ecosystem services in Alpine forests, including the important protection service against gravitational hazards. Forest planners are faced with the question how to adapt and manage best their forests to guarantee future forest multifunctionality. Usually, planners have alternative close-to-nature management approaches at hand, but individual management objectives and forest resilience affects the optimal management portfolio. We used the climate sensitive forest growth model ForClim and multi-objective optimization to address this planning task using an Alpine forest enterprise in Switzerland as case study site. We present an optimization framework tailored for the important protective service of mountain forests, allowing for the integration of flexible and multiple management objectives. Our results showed that an optimized management can safeguard and improve provision of multiple benefits at the same time with the optimal management portfolio depending on the targeted objectives. Impacts of climate change require however increasing shares of climate adapted close-to-nature management strategy reaching 78% in forests without protection service and 68% in forests with protection service, while the latter were more sensitive to climate change impacts. Climate adapted close-to-nature management strategy in combination with less intensive strategies and reserve areas provided the highest multifunctionality under the most intense climate change scenario. Adaptation also allowed for further improvement of biodiversity and ecosystem service provision, particularly for carbon sequestration. In conclusion, forest planning should rely and make use of climate sensitive modelling and optimization frameworks to adapt forests against uncertainties of climate change and for future sustainability and multifunctionality.Data:There is one folder containing the input data for the multi-objective optimization and one folder containing the optimization output. The input represents the periodically (10 years time steps) simulated biodiversity and ecosystem service indicators for each forest stand in the case study area under alternative management and climate change scenarios. The optimization output includes 18 iterations for three climate scenarios (Hist, SSP2-4.5, SSP5-8.5), three optimization scenarios (Timber, Multifunctionality, Enterprise) and for forests with and without protective service.This study was conducted as part of the ONEforest project, which received funding from the European Union's Horizon 2020 research and innovation programme under the grant agreement Nº 101000406.

The repository contains the data supporting the findings of the study: Managing European Alpine forests with close-to-nature forestry to improve climate change mitigation and multifunctionalityAbstract:Close-to-nature forestry (CNF) has a long tradition in European Alpine forest management, playing a crucial role in ensuring the continuous provision of biodiversity and forest ecosystem services, including protection against natural hazards. However, climate change is causing huge uncertainties about the future applicability of CNF in the Alpine region. The question arises as to whether current CNF practices are still suitable for adapting forests to climate change impacts while also meeting the increasing societal demands regarding Alpine forests, including their potential contribution to climate change mitigation.To answer this question, we simulated forest development using the ForClim forest model at two Alpine study sites, together representing a large biogeographic gradient from high-elevation inner Alpine forests (Switzerland) to lower-elevation south-eastern Alpine forests (Slovenia). The simulations considered three climate scenarios (historical climate, SSP2‑4.5 and SSP5-8.5) and six alternative management strategies, including both current CNF management practices and climate-adapted versions. Using a multi-criteria decision analysis framework, we assessed the joint impacts of climate and management on biodiversity and key ecosystem services of the investigated regions, including carbon sequestration (CS) inside and outside the forest ecosystem boundary. The joint effects of climate change and CNF varied, both among and within the study sites along the biogeographical gradient. While CS was more resistant to climate change under current CNF at the south-eastern Alpine site, it was more sensitive at the inner Alpine site, where CS potentials decreased at lower elevations. This adverse effect could be partly mitigated by fostering the use of climate-adapted tree species. However, current CNF and adaptations of it did not meet multiple management objectives equally well: while protection from gravitation hazards and timber production also benefited from this silvicultural practice, biodiversity benefited from CNF variants with low-intensity or no management. In conclusion, CNF has a high potential to continue fulfilling its crucial role in European Alpine forests. A differentiated approach will be needed in the future, however, to identify forest stands where adaptive measures are required, especially at sites particularly vulnerable to climate change. In combination with less intensively managed or unmanaged areas, CNF provides a management portfolio that will help European Alpine forests to meet the demands of future society.Data:There is one folder for each case study, including: simulated biodiverstiy and ecosystem service indicatorsforest stand metadatanormlized utility values for indicatorspartial utility values for biodiversity and ecosystem service groupsThis study was conducted as part of the ONEforest project, which received funding from the European Union's Horizon 2020 research and innovation programme under the grant agreement Nº 101000406.

The repository contains the data supporting the findings of the study: Managing European Alpine forests with close-to-nature forestry to improve climate change mitigation and multifunctionalityAbstract:Close-to-nature forestry (CNF) has a long tradition in European Alpine forest management, playing a crucial role in ensuring the continuous provision of biodiversity and forest ecosystem services, including protection against natural hazards. However, climate change is causing huge uncertainties about the future applicability of CNF in the Alpine region. The question arises as to whether current CNF practices are still suitable for adapting forests to climate change impacts while also meeting the increasing societal demands regarding Alpine forests, including their potential contribution to climate change mitigation.To answer this question, we simulated forest development using the ForClim forest model at two Alpine study sites, together representing a large biogeographic gradient from high-elevation inner Alpine forests (Switzerland) to lower-elevation south-eastern Alpine forests (Slovenia). The simulations considered three climate scenarios (historical climate, SSP2‑4.5 and SSP5-8.5) and six alternative management strategies, including both current CNF management practices and climate-adapted versions. Using a multi-criteria decision analysis framework, we assessed the joint impacts of climate and management on biodiversity and key ecosystem services of the investigated regions, including carbon sequestration (CS) inside and outside the forest ecosystem boundary. The joint effects of climate change and CNF varied, both among and within the study sites along the biogeographical gradient. While CS was more resistant to climate change under current CNF at the south-eastern Alpine site, it was more sensitive at the inner Alpine site, where CS potentials decreased at lower elevations. This adverse effect could be partly mitigated by fostering the use of climate-adapted tree species. However, current CNF and adaptations of it did not meet multiple management objectives equally well: while protection from gravitation hazards and timber production also benefited from this silvicultural practice, biodiversity benefited from CNF variants with low-intensity or no management. In conclusion, CNF has a high potential to continue fulfilling its crucial role in European Alpine forests. A differentiated approach will be needed in the future, however, to identify forest stands where adaptive measures are required, especially at sites particularly vulnerable to climate change. In combination with less intensively managed or unmanaged areas, CNF provides a management portfolio that will help European Alpine forests to meet the demands of future society.Data:There is one folder for each case study, including: simulated biodiverstiy and ecosystem service indicatorsforest stand metadatanormlized utility values for indicatorspartial utility values for biodiversity and ecosystem service groupsThis study was conducted as part of the ONEforest project, which received funding from the European Union's Horizon 2020 research and innovation programme under the grant agreement Nº 101000406.

The repository contains the data supporting the findings of the study: Managing European Alpine forests with close-to-nature forestry to improve climate change mitigation and multifunctionalityAbstract:Close-to-nature forestry (CNF) has a long tradition in European Alpine forest management, playing a crucial role in ensuring the continuous provision of biodiversity and forest ecosystem services, including protection against natural hazards. However, climate change is causing huge uncertainties about the future applicability of CNF in the Alpine region. The question arises as to whether current CNF practices are still suitable for adapting forests to climate change impacts while also meeting the increasing societal demands regarding Alpine forests, including their potential contribution to climate change mitigation.To answer this question, we simulated forest development using the ForClim forest model at two Alpine study sites, together representing a large biogeographic gradient from high-elevation inner Alpine forests (Switzerland) to lower-elevation south-eastern Alpine forests (Slovenia). The simulations considered three climate scenarios (historical climate, SSP2‑4.5 and SSP5-8.5) and six alternative management strategies, including both current CNF management practices and climate-adapted versions. Using a multi-criteria decision analysis framework, we assessed the joint impacts of climate and management on biodiversity and key ecosystem services of the investigated regions, including carbon sequestration (CS) inside and outside the forest ecosystem boundary. The joint effects of climate change and CNF varied, both among and within the study sites along the biogeographical gradient. While CS was more resistant to climate change under current CNF at the south-eastern Alpine site, it was more sensitive at the inner Alpine site, where CS potentials decreased at lower elevations. This adverse effect could be partly mitigated by fostering the use of climate-adapted tree species. However, current CNF and adaptations of it did not meet multiple management objectives equally well: while protection from gravitation hazards and timber production also benefited from this silvicultural practice, biodiversity benefited from CNF variants with low-intensity or no management. In conclusion, CNF has a high potential to continue fulfilling its crucial role in European Alpine forests. A differentiated approach will be needed in the future, however, to identify forest stands where adaptive measures are required, especially at sites particularly vulnerable to climate change. In combination with less intensively managed or unmanaged areas, CNF provides a management portfolio that will help European Alpine forests to meet the demands of future society.Data:There is one folder for each case study, including: simulated biodiverstiy and ecosystem service indicatorsforest stand metadatanormlized utility values for indicatorspartial utility values for biodiversity and ecosystem service groupsThis study was conducted as part of the ONEforest project, which received funding from the European Union's Horizon 2020 research and innovation programme under the grant agreement Nº 101000406.

The repository contains the data supporting the findings of the study: Managing European Alpine forests with close-to-nature forestry to improve climate change mitigation and multifunctionalityAbstract:Close-to-nature forestry (CNF) has a long tradition in European Alpine forest management, playing a crucial role in ensuring the continuous provision of biodiversity and forest ecosystem services (BES), including protection against natural hazards. Climate change causes, however, huge uncertainties about the future applicability of CNF in the Alpine region. The question arises, whether current CNF practices are still suitable for adopting forests to climate change impacts while meeting the increasing societal demands regarding Alpine forests, including their potential contibution to climate change mitigation.To answer this question, we simulated forest development using the ForClim forest model at two Alpine study sites, together representing a large biogeographic gradient from high-elevation inner Alpine (Switzerland) and lower-elevation south-eastern Alpine forests (Slovenia). The simulations considered three climate scenarios (historical climate, SSP2‑4.5 and SSP5-8.5) and alternative management strategies, including both current CNF management practices and climate-adapted versions. Using a multi-criteria decision analysis framework, we assessed the joint impacts of climate and management on key BES of the investigated regions, including carbon sequestration (CS) inside and outside the forest ecosystem boundary. The effects of climate change varied, both among and within the study sites along environmental gradients. In the inner Alpine study site, ecosystem services were more sensitive to climate change and the CS potentials decreased under current CNF management practices, especially at lower elevations. This adverse effect could be partly mitigated by fostering the use of climate-adapted tree species. However, the climate-adapted CNF variant did not meet multiple management objectives equally well: while protection from gravitations hazards and timber production also benefited from the adaptation strategy, biodiversity benefited from CNF variants with low intensity and no management. In conclusion, adaptive measures are urgently required for CNF to continue fulfilling its crucial role in European Alpine forests, especially on forest sites and elevation that are expected to be particularly vulnerable to climate change. In combination with less-intensive or unmanaged areas, CNF provides a management portfolio allowing European Alpine forests to meet the demands of future society.Data:There is one folder for each case study, including: simulated biodiverstiy and ecosystem service indicatorsforest stand metadatanormlized utility values for indicatorspartial utility values for biodiversity and ecosystem service groupsThis study was conducted as part of the ONEforest project, which received funding from the European Union's Horizon 2020 research and innovation programme under the grant agreement Nº 101000406.